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James Bay in the Province of Quebec, Canada
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James Bay (French, Baie James) is a large body of water on the southern end of Hudson Bay in Canada. Both bodies of water extend
from the Arctic Ocean. James Bay borders the provinces of Quebec and Ontario; islands within the bay (the largest of which is
Akimiski Island) are currently part of Nunavut, but the islands have been ceded to Quebec and Ontario in a soon-to-be-signed
agreement[citation needed]. The James Bay watershed is the site of several major hydroelectric projects, and is also a destination
for river-based recreation. Several communities are located near or alongside James Bay, including a number of Aboriginal communities
such as the Kashechewan First Nation and nine communities affiliated with the Crees of northern Quebec.
Quebec Tourism Guide
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Quebec Tourism Guide
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HISTORY
The bay first came to the attention of Europeans in 1610, when Henry Hudson entered it during his exploration of the larger bay that
bears his name. James Bay itself received its name in honor of Thomas James, an English captain who explored the area more thoroughly
in 1630-31.
James Bay is important in the history of Canada as one of the most hospitable parts of the Hudson's Bay region, and as a result its
corresponding importance to the Hudson's Bay Company and British expansion into Canada. The fur-trapping duo of explorers Pierre-Esprit
Radisson and Médard Chouart, Sieur des Groseilliers convinced the English Crown, primarily Prince Rupert of Bavaria, a favored cousin of
both Charles I and Charles II, that a colonial enterprise in the North would yield wealth in minerals and fur. Sieur des Groseilliers
accompanied Captain Zachariah Gillam on the ketch Nonesuch and they jointly founded the first fur trading post on James Bay, Charles Fort.
Their success, though lacking in minerals, was such that the Company was chartered by Charles II on their return. This charter granted a
complete trading monopoly of the whole Hudson Bay watershed (including James Bay) to the Company. At the same time, the first English
colony on what is now mainland Canada, Ruperts Land Colony, was formed, with the first "capital" being at Charles Fort. The fact that
the first colonial governor, Charles Baley (various spelling exist), was a Quaker might have been an important factor in the style of
relations established between the Company and its "trading partners", Canada's First Nations.
Significant fur trapping has continued in the region, but in general the east coast or East Main of James Bay was too easily accessed
by French and independent traders from the south so early Hudson's Bay Company emphasis was quickly placed onto interior trapping
grounds reached from the west coasts of James and Hudson Bay. It was, nevertheless, the gateway to British settlements in what would
become Manitoba (Winnipeg, for example) and as far west as the Rocky Mountains.
GEOGRAPHY
The eastern shores of the bay form the western edge of the Canadian Shield in Quebec. As such, the terrain here is rocky and hilly
with boreal forest. The western shore is characterized by broad tundra lowlands that are an extension of the Hudson Bay Lowland. Its
vegetation is mostly muskeg. A large portion of this area is part of the Polar Bear Provincial Park.
Hundreds of rivers flow into James Bay. The geography of the area gives many of them similar characteristics. They tend to be wide and
shallow near the Bay (in the James Bay Lowlands), whereas they are steeper and narrower further upstream (as they pour off the Canadian
Shield).
Hannah Bay
Hannah Bay is the southern most bay of James Bay. Here the Kesagami and Harricana Rivers flow into James Bay. About 238 km² is protected
under the Migratory Birds Convention Act of Canada as the Hannah Bay Bird Sanctuary. This sanctuary has also been designated as a
Wetland of International Importance under the Ramsar Convention since May 1987.
The shores in this area are a mixture of intertidal mud, sand, and salt flats, estuarine waters, intertidal marshes, freshwater ponds,
swamps, and forested peatlands
HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
Coastal communities
The shores of James Bay are sparsely populated. On the eastern shore there are nine coastal communities belonging to the Crees, the
indigenous people of the region.
Economic development
James Bay has returned to prominence in recent decades due to the James Bay hydroelectric project. Since 1971, the government of
Quebec has developed rivers in the James Bay watershed, notably La Grande and Eastmain rivers. Built between 1974 and 1996, the
La Grande Complexe now has a combined generating capacity of 16,021 megawatts (MW) and produces about 83 terawatthours (TWh) of
electricity each year, about half of Quebec's consumption. Power is also being exported to New York area in large part. A direct
transmission high voltage line delivers powers to US grid. The James Bay Project continues to expand, with work beginning in 2007 on
a new phase that involves the diversion of the Rupert River.
Another major development project, the Great Recycling and Northern Development (GRAND) Canal centered on separating the Southern
James Bay from Hudson Bay by a large dike, thus turning the bay into a freshwater lake due to the numerous rivers that empty into it.
This water could then be pumped south for human use. It seems very unlikely that the GRAND Canal will actually ever be built.
RECREATION
Canoeing
Many of the rivers flowing into James Bay are popular destinations for wilderness canoe trippers. Among the more popular rivers are:
- Albany River (Ontario)
- Moose River (Ontario)
- Missinaibi River - recognized as a Canadian Heritage River
- Broadback River (Quebec)
- Rupert River (Quebec) - to be diverted in 2007 for hydro-electric development
Two less-travelled rivers are the Groundhog River and the Harricana. The Groundhog is less travelled in modern times due to a
series of seven dams that are about a day or two up-river from the Moose. Canoeists can contact the dam company and arrange to be
towed around the dams on company trucks, but they must make arrangements specific to the hour, and they cannot be late. The Groundhog
flows into the Mattagami after a set of rapids known as Seven-Mile. The Mattagami then flows into the Moose; it is at the meeting of
the Missinaibi and Mattagami rivers that the Moose river begins, marked by an island known as Portage Island. This point is about two
or three days travel by canoe to Moosonee. Though the Missinaibi and the Groundhog are both fairly high in the summertime, the Moose
is often quite low. Depending on the tides, groups have had to walk long stretches of the river. Rapids on the Groundhog tend to be
bigger and more technical than those on the Missinaibi, but the campsites are few and poor, because the volume of travel is so much less.
The Harricana River flows into James Bay several miles east of Moosonee, so anyone wishing to take this route must allow about two days
to cross the bay, an extremely dangerous proposition if the tides and the weather are against you.
The most common access point for paddlers to this area is Moosonee, at the southern end of James Bay. A campsite known as "Tidewater"
provides large campgrounds with firepits and outhouses on an island across the river from the town. Water taxis will ferry people back
and forth for about $1 each. Many of these rivers finish near Moosonee, and paddlers can take the Polar Bear Express train south to
Cochrane at the end of a trip.
Waskaganish, Quebec, is a town further to the north and east on James Bay. It is accessible via the James Bay Road, and is the most
common end point for trips on the Broadback, Pontax, and Rupert Rivers (the town itself is situated at the mouth of the Rupert).
JAMES BAY PROJECT
The James Bay Project (in French, projet de la Baie-James) refers to the construction of a series of hydroelectric
power stations on the La Grande River in northwestern Québec, Canada, and the diversion of neighbouring rivers into
the La Grande watershed. It is located between James Bay to the west and Labrador to the east and its waters flow from
the Laurentian Plateau of the Canadian Shield. The project covers an area of the size of the State of New York and is
one of the largest hydroelectric systems in the world. The project has cost upwards of 20 billion US dollars to build
and has an installed generating capacity of 16,000 megawatts, three times more than all of the power stations at Niagara Falls.
HISTORY
As early as 1950, the Quebec provincial government investigated the energy potential of torrential rivers flowing
through its sparsely populated north. Until the late 1960s, development interest was limited due to the distances
involved. While the cost alone was discouraging, politics also delayed realization of the project. Not until the election
of Premier Robert Bourassa, a noted technocrat, did construction on the James Bay Project begin. A successor to the
Lesage Liberal legacy of the early 1960s, Bourassa felt the extensive hydro-electric resources of Quebec were the most
effective means of completing the modernization of Quebec. Northern Quebec seemed to hold almost unlimited energy resources
whose inexpensive surplus power would attract business and subsidize unmatched social services in perpetuity.
The early steps
On April 30, 1971, Quebec Premier Robert Bourassa unveiled plans for the construction of several large hydroelectric power
stations on the rivers flowing into James Bay, either on the Nottaway, Broadback, Rupert and Harricana Rivers in the south
(NBR Project), or on the La Grande and Eastmain Rivers to the north. The choice in favor of the more northerly rivers was only
made in May 1972 and involved the construction of four generating stations on the La Grande River and the diversion of the
Eastmain and Caniapiscau rivers into the La Grande watershed. Responsibility for the project would be overseen by the Société
d'énergie de la Baie-James, a newly-created mixed corporation (public/private) controlled by Hydro-Québec.
As environmental assessments were not then required under Quebec law, construction of the main
700 km road to the La Grande River was begun in 1971 and completed by October 1974 at a cost of about 400 million dollars.
In 1973 and 1974, a temporary winter ice road was used to bring in the heavy equipment required for the construction of the
roadbed and some 13 major bridges spanning the many rivers of the region.
Although the Aboriginal Crees had traditional hunting and trapping areas in the region, no seasonal or permanent roads existed
at the time. Opposition to the project, however, was strong among the 5,000 Crees of James Bay, the 3,500 Inuit to the north and
several environmental groups. They believed the government of Quebec was acting in violation of treaties and committing unlawful
expropriation and destruction of traditional hunting and trapping lands. Furthermore, the Cree and Inuit had not been informed
of the hydroelectric project until after construction of the access road had begun. In later years, the Cree and Inuit were given
a settlement of $150 million.
In November 1975, the governments of Canada and Quebec signed the James Bay and Northern Quebec Agreement with the Cree of the
James Bay region and the Inuit of northern Quebec, granting exclusive hunting and fishing rights to about 170,000 km² of territory
and about 250 million dollars in financial compensation in return for the right to develop the hydroelectric resources of Northern Quebec.
The planned La Grande-1 power station would be built about 50 km further away from the Cree village of Chisasibi than originally planned.
The Agreement also provided for an extensive environmental follow-up of all aspects of the hydroelectric development on the La Grande
and Eastmain rivers and the establishment of a joint environmental assessment process for any future hydroelectric project involving
other rivers of Northern Quebec.
Phase I
The period of construction of the first phase of the project covered about 14 years. By 1986, the largest power stations and reservoirs
on the La Grande River were mostly completed, including the Robert-Bourassa (originally named La Grande-2), La Grande-3 and La
Grande-4 generating stations, with an installed capacity of 10,800 megawatts, and five reservoirs covering an area of 11,300 km².
The Eastmain and Caniapiscau river diversions each added about 800 m3/s of water to the La Grande River. The power plants of the
first phase of the James Bay Project produce about 65 TWh of power each year, operating at about 60% of their maximum rated
generating capacity.
During this first phase of construction, over 155,000,000 m³ (203 million cubic yards) of fill, 138,000 tons of steel, 550,000 tons
of cement, and nearly 70,000 tons of explosives were used. Concurrent employment by the project reached 18,000. Of the 215 dikes and
dams, many surpassed the height of skyscrapers, with one reaching 56 stories. The terraced diversion channel at Robert-Bourassa
Generating Station was carved 30 meters (one hundred feet) deep into the side of a mountain. Water tumbles from the reservoir to the
river below at a height greater than that of Niagara Falls. A 4,800 km (3,000 mile) network of transmission lines was necessary to
bring generated power to consumers in southern Quebec. Interestingly, this network contains several 735 kilovolt lines and one
450 kilovolt DC line directly linked to the U.S. power grid.
Phase II
During the late 1980s and early 1990s, construction of the second phase of the James Bay project centered on the construction of five
secondary power plants on the La Grande River and its tributaries (La Grande-1, La Grande-2A, Laforge-1, Laforge-2 and Brisay), adding
a further 5,200 megawatts of generating capacity to the La Grande hydroelectric complex by the end of 1996. Three new reservoirs
covering an area of 1,600 km² were created, including the Laforge-1 Reservoir covering 1,288 km².
The generating plants of this second phase of the project produce about 18.3 TWh of power per year, operating at between 60% and 70%
of their maximum rated generating capacity.
On March 13, 1989, a massive solar storm caused a failure of the La Grande complex which plunged most of Quebec into darkness
for nine hours.
Great Whale River project
During the construction of the second phase of the James Bay Project, Hydro-Québec proposed an additional project on the Great
Whale River (French: Grande rivière de la Baleine), just to the north of the La Grande River watershed. Opposition among the
Cree was even more vocal this time than in the early 1970s. In 1990, Grand Chief Matthew Coon Come organized a canoe trip from
Hudson's Bay to the Hudson River, in Albany, New York, and this very effective public relations stunt brought international
pressure to bear on the government of Quebec. The Cree had experienced considerable culture shock with the introduction of
permanent transportation routes to the south and very few Cree were employed on the construction site. Poverty and social
problems remained important in the isolated Cree and Inuit villages of Northern Québec, even in areas where there were no
hydroelectric or mining activities.
By the 1980s, the natural ebb and flow of the La Grande, Eastmain and Caniapiscau rivers had been severely modified, notably delaying
the formation of a solid ice cover near the Cree village of Chisasibi, and about 4% of the traditional hunting and trapping territories
of the Cree had been lost to the rising waters of the reservoirs, including about 10% of the territories of the Cree village of Chisasibi.
At the same time, new roads, snowmobiles and bush airlines facilitated access to distant hunting territories of the interior. While
highly motivated, the Cree's opposition to the Great Whale River Project was mainly ineffective until 1992 when the State of New York
withdrew from a multi-billion dollar power purchasing agreement due to public outcry and a decrease in energy requirements. In 1994,
the Government of Québec and Hydro-Québec suspended the project indefinitely.
Rupert River diversion
In 2002, the Quebec government and the Grand Council of the Crees signed a landmark agreement, "La Paix des Braves" (literally "The
Peace of the Brave"), ensuring the completion of the last phase of the original James Bay Project: construction of the Eastmain-1
generating station, with a capacity of 480 megawatts, and the Eastmain Reservoir with a surface area of about 600 km².
A subsequent agreement in April 2004 put an end to all litigation between the two parties and opened the way to a joint environmental
assessment of the projected diversion of the Rupert River, to the south of the Eastmain River. The project entails the diversion of
about 50% of the total water flow of the Rupert River (and 70% of the flow at the diversion point) towards the Eastmain Reservoir and
into the La Grande Complex, and the construction of two additional generating stations: Eastmain-1A and Sarcelle, with a combined
capacity of 888 megawatts. The Rupert diversion would generate a total of 8.5 TWh of electricity at the new and existing power stations.
The Grand Chief of the Crees of Quebec, Matthew Mukash, elected in late 2005, is opposed to the Rupert River diversion and favors the
construction of wind turbines.
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT
The James Bay Project diverted the waters of the Caniapiscau and Eastmain rivers into the La Grande River watershed, submerged about
11,000 km² of boreal forest and substantially modified the water flow of the La Grande River. The water flow was reduced by 90% at
the mouth of the Eastmain River, near the Cree village of Eastmain, by 45% where the Caniapiscau River flows into the Koksoak River,
and by 35% at the mouth of the Koksoak River, near the northern village of Kuujjuaq. The water flow of the La Grande River, on the
other hand, was doubled, increasing from 1,700 m³/s to 3,400 m³/s (and from 500 m³/s to 5,000 m³/s in winter) near the Cree village of
Chisasibi at the mouth of the La Grande River. The planned diversion of the Rupert River into the La Grande Complexe will further increase
the flow of the La Grande River by about 420 m³/s; the flow of the Rupert River will, on the other hand, be reduced from 840 m³/s to
about 420 m³/s at its mouth, near the Cree village of Waskaganish.
Decomposing organic material in the reservoirs further added to the high levels of organic mercury in local lakes and rivers, which stems
from geology and atmospheric pollution from the coal-fired electric generation plants of the United States and Ontario, Canada, but
this impact has been shown to dissipate after 20 to 30 years[1]. Although environmentalists had originally feared the project's impact
on migratory waterfowl of the James Bay region, the project has in fact submerged only 1% of the areas used by the waterfowl and their
numbers have remained stable over the last 30 years.
Important variations in the water flow of the Caniapiscau River from 1981 to 1984, during the period when the Caniapiscau Reservoir
was being filled, may have contributed to the death by drowning of 10,000 caribou in September 1984 (about 1.5 percent of the herd at
that time). However, the reduced flow of the Caniapiscau and Koksoak rivers has permanently reduced the risk of natural floods on the
lower Caniapiscau during the period of caribou migrations. About 30,000 caribou are killed each year by Inuit, Cree and southern hunters,
mostly American and European.
The potential for massive greenhouse gas emissions in large hydroelectric reservoirs has also generated considerable debate since the
Kyoto conference on climate change of 1997. However, greenhouse gas emissions from the northern reservoirs of the La Grande complex are
between 2 and 8 percent of the emissions associated with any conventional (fossil fuel) power generation (and from 1 to 4 percent of the
greenhouse emissions of the typical coal-fired power generation plant of Canada or the United States).
SOCIAL IMPACT
The James Bay and Northern Quebec Agreement was a milestone on the road to economic and social modernisation in the Cree and Inuit
communities of Quebec. At a time when hunting and fishing activities had been on the decline in the Cree villages, the James Bay Project
provided considerable financial and administrative resources for the Crees to deal with the environmental and social consequences of the
project and provide for future economic development, such as the creation of the local airline Air Creebec. The James Bay Project also
was an impetus for the forging of a collective identity among the Cree of Quebec and for the establishment of the Grand Council of the
Crees (Eeyou Istchee). The Agreement notably provided for major institutional structures for local government, economic development,
schools and health services, mostly under the control of the Grand Council of the Crees and the Kativik Regional Government, in Nunavik.
Yet, the social consequences of the hydroelectric project itself pale in comparison to the social impact of the Cree coming into direct
contact with the society and economic forces of francophone Quebec. The greatest impact stems from the construction in the early 1970s of
the Route de la Baie James (James Bay Road) from Matagami to the new town of Radisson, near the Robert-Bourassa generating station
(La Grande-2), and on to the nearby Cree village of Chisasibi. During the main construction period of the late 1970s, Radisson housed a
population several times greater than the Cree population of Chisasibi, although it currently has a population of about 500.
Nevertheless, the Cree communities have themselves continued the push to build additional roads from the James Bay Road westward to the
Cree coastal villages of Wemindji, Eastmain and Waskaganish. These roads, opened between 1995 and 2001, have further facilitated access to
hunting areas of the interior and encouraged commercial and social exchanges between the Cree villages and with southern Quebec. A separate
road (Route du Nord) also links the James Bay Road to Chibougamau, via the Cree village of Nemaska. The building of these newer roads was
largely the work of Cree construction companies.
The James Bay Road also opened the region to further mineral exploration and clear-cut logging in the southern James Bay area and
substantially reduced the cost of transport. These activities have put further strains on the traditional hunting and trapping
activities of the Cree in the southern James Bay region, notably the villages of Waskaganish and Nemaska. Such activities, however,
only accounted for about half the economic activity of the Cree communities in 1970 and less than 20 % by the late 1990s. Hunting
and fishing in the Cree villages mostly involves young adults and older Cree with few professional qualifications. Such activities
are furthermore sustained by an income replacement program financed by the government of Quebec that offers the equivalent of a modest
annual salary for hunters and their families who live in the bush for at least several weeks of the year.
SUMMARY
While the impact of the James Bay Project was important, above all for the Crees of Chisasibi and Eastmain, there is still some debate
within the environmentalist community over its overall environmental impact. While the La Grande complex has disrupted parts of a vast
pristine ecosystem, it has also given the opportunity for thousands of gigawatt-hours of electricity to be generated pollution-free:
unlike the reservoir of the Three Gorges Dam in China, the northern reservoirs of Quebec neither receive silt from the upstream
tributaries, nor produce important quantities of methane, a powerful greenhouse gas.
Source: Wikipedia
Quebec Tourism Guide
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